Documentation

Constructing the Sacred by Elaine A. Sullivan

The following documents the original digital publication Constructing the Sacred: Visibility and Ritual Landscape at the Egyptian Necropolis of Saqqara by Elaine A. Sullivan (Stanford University Press, 2020). DOI: 10.21627/2020cts ISBN: 9781503603332

Overview

Using 3D technologies, Constructing the Sacred addresses ancient ritual landscape from a unique perspective to examine development at the complex, long-lived archaeological site of Saqqara, Egypt. Elaine A. Sullivan uses 3D technologies to peel away the layers of history at the site, revealing how changes to sight lines, skylines, and vistas at different periods of Saqqara’s millennia-long use influenced sacred ceremonies and ritual meaning at the necropolis. Sullivan focuses on how changes in the built and natural environments affected burial rituals at the cemetery due to changes in visibility. Virtually placing the reader within a series of landscapes that are no longer possible to experience, the author flips the top-down view prevalent in archeology to a more human-centered perspective, focusing on the dynamic evolution of an ancient site that is typically viewed as static.

Sullivan does not only consider individual buildings; she recontextualizes built spaces within the larger ancient landscape, engaging in materially focused investigations of how monuments shape community memories and a culturally specific sense of place. Challenging our modern impression of the permanent and enduring nature of the site, this publication highlights the fact that the monuments and their meanings were fluid, as the Egyptians modified, abandoned, resurrected, forgot, or incorporated them into new contexts.

3D models promise to have great potential for research in a broad range of artifact- and object-based research, yet current technology does not allow for a robust environment in which we can engage with complex objects that change over time. This publication is among the first to push the boundaries to include interactive 3D models that can be navigated both spatially and temporally.

The project was originally published March 2020 at http://constructingthesacred.org/. It is the sixth publication of Stanford University Press’s initiative for the publication of interactive scholarly works funded by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation.

Technical Requirements

At the time of publication, this project requires internet connection and is best experienced via any active JavaScript-enabled browser. Browsers current at time of publication include Safari 13.1, Chrome 80, Firefox 74, Microsoft Edge 80, Opera 67, and other contemporary browsers. Chrome users may need to enable hardware acceleration in their browser settings for best viewing of embedded 3D environments. For full functionality of the embedded 3D visualizations, the project is recommended only for desktop, not mobile, viewing. Because it contains video, it is best experienced on a device equipped with audio output.

To access and view the downloadable 3D model and terrain raster data, which exist in OBJ, ESRI geo-database (GDB), and SketchUp (SKP) format, a user will at the very least need a text editor (e.g., TextEdit, Atom, Notepad, etc.). To view, edit, and interact with the data in a visual interface/context, 3D modeling programs such as Autodesk Maya, Autodesk 3ds Max, and SketchUp, or the open software programs Blender and MeshLab, are recommended for OBJ and SKP files. ESRI ArcGIS or the open software program QGIS are recommended for the GDB files. An archive/ZIP utility is required to uncompress the data download packages.

Technical Specifications

The published version of the project relies on the Scalar 2.5.10 platform run in a LAMP server environment running Cloudlinux 7.7 and PHP 7.1. Minimal custom CSS styles and scripts have been added to the base Scalar scripts and styles (filename and pathway noted below). Original project base data was created in shapefile format using the ESRI ArcSuite software ArcMap and ArcCatalog versions 10.3, 10.5, and 10.6. 3D models of major monuments were created to scale on published archaeological plans using Trimble SketchUp Pro versions 8.0, 2015 (15.3), and 2018. The model was constructed in the urban simulation software ESRI CityEngine 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2018. Simple massing models of mastaba tombs at Saqqara and Helwan were created using procedural modeling in ESRI CityEngine. The model was additionally exported into the VSim scholarly 3D interface, version 2.0. An interactive version of the model was published online via the ESRI ArcGIS Pro 2.2.0 web application. Data files of the model or components making up the model exist in the following formats: OBJ, ESRI geo-database (GDB), and SketchUp (SKP).

To rebuild the Scalar publication, a user may import the project data file in the SDR collection to an empty Scalar 2.5.10 application. This project uses transliteration fonts which should be acquired from the SDR collection and added to the application pathway noted below. The following configurations should be applied in the Scalar dashboard:

Basics

• Title: <span data-hide-versions="true">Constructing the Sacred</span>
• Subtitle: Visibility and Ritual Landscape at the Egyptian Necropolis of Saqqara
• Description: [blank]
• URI segment: cts
• Table of Contents:
  1. Introduction
  2. Saqqara Through Space and Time
  3. The Hidden and the Seen
  4. Widening the View
  5. Constructing the Sacred at Royal Funerary Landscapes in Egypt
  6. Making the Model
  7. Conclusion
  8. 3D Model Downloads and Full Metadata & Paradata
  9. 3D Model Documentation and Data Credits
  10. Bibliography
  11. Author Acknowledgements

Style

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Publisher

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User Experience

After clicking enter on the landing page (see fig. 1), visitors arrive at the internal platform. The digital monograph consists of eleven main sections in the Scalar publishing platform, an open-source, free-to-use platform developed by the Alliance for Networking Visual Culture for scholars. The standard design allows you to access sections and subsections from a drop-down menu on the upper left and includes the following main sections (see fig. 2):

1. Introduction
2. Saqqara Through Space and Time: A spatial and temporal exploration of the site using the 3D GIS model
3. The Hidden and the Seen: I use the model to argue that visibility was an important but as yet undertheorized aspect of royal and elite sacred landscape production in ancient Egypt.
4. Widening the View: This section focuses on the meaning the necropolis held to those outside the small elite connected to the court and state administration. It attempts to explore the interaction of those individuals and groups with the constructed landscape to understand how a wider group of ancient people formulated meaning within the ritual space.
5. Constructing the Sacred at Royal Funerary Landscapes in Egypt: Here I identify a series of techniques for landscape intervention that repeat at Saqqara and appear at other ritual sites in the Nile Valley.
6. Making the Model: A detailed exploration of the choices made in the model construction
7. Conclusion
8. 3D Model Downloads and Full Metadata & Paradata: File downloads and documentation
9. 3D Model Documentation and Data Credits: Documentation and credits
10. Bibliography
11. Author Acknowledgement

1. Introduction

Section 1 is primarily a simple narrative experience for the reader, but it introduces some of the affordances of the digital Scalar platform, including the in-text Chicago style citations, which, when the reader clicks on the numbered footnote marker, pop up so they don’t clutter the text (see fig. 3). These citations frequently include direct links to stable DOIs for the publication, allowing the reader to access primary and secondary source materials in exterior archives with only a few clicks. Some multimedia (video and 3D color model renders) is also included. The first page of each section displays the various subsections (“Contents”); readers are encouraged to move through these chronologically and follow the scholarly narrative as curated by the author (see fig. 4).

2. Saqqara Through Space and Time

Section 2 takes the reader on a geo-temporal site tour, looking at what we know about Saqqara through space and time. I have organized this chronologically and thematically according to type of monument, starting with the first monumental architecture at the site in Dynasty 1, then moving through Egypt’s Late Period, Dynasties 26–30. The Scalar platform allows for integration of long form descriptive text with the interactive web-based 3D reconstruction model of the site (within an embedded window), and readers can zoom in, zoom out, spin around, and explore the 3D model of the site dynamically, not constrained by a curated fly-through (see fig. 5). This functionality can be accessed by using the tools on the left of the embedded window: the + and – buttons (zoom in and out) and the four-arrow and circle arrow (pan and rotate). Comparable navigation is also possible using the reader’s own mouse (scroll wheel in and out, right click, and left click). A compass button orients the 3D model to the north, and a home button takes the reader back to the original Dynasty 1 window location within the model (although it does not automatically reset the time-slider to Dynasty 1). During free navigation of the model, the reader can click on individual monuments to view descriptive metadata as an expandable pop-up from the original 2D GIS including data like tomb name/number, tomb owner, and tomb date, as well as bibliographic information relating to the 3D reconstruction (see figs. 6–7).

The reader can also use the time-slider in the lower center of the model window to jump forward or back in the chronology of the site (see fig. 8).

After the reader finishes exploring one model, they continue with the narrative text until they encounter the next model window (see fig. 9). The 3D reconstruction model of the site is linked directly to the text based on location and time period, so the reader is positioned looking at the part of the model under discussion in the neighboring text.

This section also incorporates multiple types of archaeological data sets, including images of maps from legacy publications that date to the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, modern and historic satellite imagery (like Corona imagery), and noninvasive GPR survey data to tell the archaeological story of the site. The primary goal of this section is to fully integrate the 3D GIS model into the narrative of this work, providing the model of Saqqara with clear historical context, explanations, and description.

3. The Hidden and the Seen

In Section 3, I use the 3D model as a research test space to examine how the material world and built environment shaped a sense of sacred space at Saqqara, both visually and spatially. In this section, instead of the dynamic 3D model, I use static model renders, GIS analysis maps, and color photos to support my scholarly argument (see fig. 10).

4. Widening the View
5. Constructing the Sacred at Royal Funerary Landscapes in Egypt

Sections 4 and 5 also include long form narrative argumentation, with a focus on static model renders and color photos (see figs. 11–12).

6. Making the Model

Section 6 offers a detailed discussion of the model building process. This includes a narrative description of the model construction in SketchUp and using procedural modeling techniques in CityEngine, as well as colored (static) images of the GIS maps and published data used to make the terrain files for the 3D model (see figs 13–14).

7. Conclusion

Section 7 is a narrative conclusion to the research and argumentation.

8. 3D Model Downloads and Full Metadata & Paradata

The publication also includes more extensive metadata and paradata than could be included in the online dynamic 3D model, so that scholars really interested in the base data can understand the reconstructions. Section 8 includes all the metadata categories, completed for each model in tabular format, including the owner or builder and time period, but also source information for the 2D location data and basic elements of the 3D reconstruction data like the reconstructed height, width, and length of the monument and bibliography for that information for each custom-built 3D model. Above each table is a link to the downloadable files (in their native file format, SketchUp, as well as in OBJ format, an open format that is used by many 3D programs) for each model. (These open a ZIP file of the multiple files for download to the reader’s browser.) See figs 15–17. This section is again organized by chronology, Dynasty 1 to Dynasties 26–30 (see fig. 18).

Links to the associated terrain files, deposited in Stanford Library’s Earthworks (https://earthworks.stanford.edu/), are located at the bottom of the page associated with that temporal period (see fig. 19). Clicking on these links opens a new browser and takes the reader to the exterior library repository (see fig. 20).

3D Model Documentation and Data Credits

Section 9 includes a narrative listing of credits and data sources.

Bibliography

Section 10 is a full bibliography of the project in Chicago style, including stable DOI links to the primary and secondary sources when available (see fig. 21). A downloadable PDF version of the bibliography is also linked on the page.

Technical Structure

The project is built within Scalar, a content management system that automatically generates URLs that match the author-defined page or media title. What appears in the address bar reflects this naming structure for the titles of those pages or objects. However, the content is not stored as separate html units but is compiled as an RDF-XML/JSON file. The database structure is defined by the open-source Scalar platform, and the scripts that render the content draw it from the RDF data. This data constitutes 1034 unique URL pages and 179 URLs to media, including static images, video, and 3D model embeds. Images and video are sourced from the Stanford Digital Repository archive collection. Downloadable data is also stored in and sourced from this repository archive. Inline interactive 3D environments are embedded via iframe. In addition to the full 3D model, located at https://constructingthesacred.supdigital.org/mapviewer/index.html, thirty unique bookmark URLs, in JSON format, are mapped to bitly shortcuts and allow one to enter the visualization at specific points:

A web archive of this project can be accessed via the Archive link on the project’s cover page at http://constructingthesacred.org/ or downloaded from the Stanford Digital Repository collection at https://purl.stanford.edu/yj995wy0505.

Credit

Title: 3D Saqqara model

Creator: Dr. Elaine A. Sullivan, UC Santa Cruz (project director), Department of History, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA, http://history.ucsc.edu

Project Team:

• Elaine Sullivan, Egyptology research, 3D modeling, CityEngine content, temporal terrain research, terrain generation, model design, VSim model annotation, metadata supervisor

UCLA, UC Santa Cruz, and UC Berkeley then-undergraduate or graduate students:

• Aria Klucewicz, Early Dynastic procedural models (rule generation and massing models), terrain digitization, 3D modeling
• Eric Fries, GIS workflows, temporal terrain research, terrain digitization
• Max Van Rensselaer, ArcScene workflow developer
• Cori Hoover, 3D modeling
• Sophie Short, 3D modeling
• Victoria Schniedewind, 3D modeling
• Savannah Dawson, model renders in Vue Infinite

Technological and design support:

• Dr. Marie Saldana (UCLA), CityEngine workflow developer, procedural models (rule generation)
• Dr. Lisa Snyder (UCLA), transitioning the model into VSim, Vue Infinite technological support
• Bruce McCrimmon (UCLA), model renders, video in Vue Infinite
• Dr. Willeke Wendrich (UCLA), advising
• Aaron Cole (UC Santa Cruz), GIS assistance, ArcScene workflow support; ArcGIS Pro web application developer
• Dr. Barry Nickel (UC Santa Cruz), GIS assistance, ArcScene workflow support
• Dr. Kristy Golubiewski-Davis (UC Santa Cruz), 3D rendering workflow support

3D Saqqara Survey Project (GIS survey in Egypt):

• Dr. Michael Harrower, mission co-director and surveyor
• Rinus Ormeling, Egyptologist
• Frances Wiig, GIS specialist

Publisher: Stanford University Press, as part of the publication Constructing the Sacred: Visibility and Ritual Landscape at the Egyptian Necropolis of Saqqara, 2020.

Project Funding: The 3D Saqqara project has been supported by:

• NEH Digital Publication Grant, 2018–2019; Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant, level II, 2015–2016
• University of California Santa Cruz Faculty Research Grants awarded by the Committee on Research, 2014–2015, 2016–2017, 2017–2018, 2018–2019
• National Geographic Society, 2017–2018
• UCSC Archaeological Research Center, Director Cameron Monroe, 2017–2018
• ACLS Digital Innovation Fellowship award, 2012–2013
• W. M. Keck Foundation, as part of UCLA’s Digital Cultural Mapping program, 2011–2012

Date: Project start date 2012, release date 2020

Hardware Platforms: Windows 7 (Parallels), Mac OS 10.12.6

Authoring Tools/3D Drawing Tools:

Original project base data was created in shapefile format using the ESRI ArcSuite software ArcMap and ArcCatalog versions 10.3, 10.5, and 10.6

3D models of major monuments were created to scale on published archaeological plans using Trimble SketchUp Pro versions 8.0, 2015 (15.3), and 2018 

The model was constructed in the urban simulation software ESRI CityEngine 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2018. Simple massing models of mastaba tombs at Saqqara and Helwan were created using procedural modeling in ESRI CityEngine

The model was additionally exported into the VSim scholarly 3D interface, version 2.0

An interactive version of the model was published online via the ESRI ArcGIS Pro 2.2.0 web application

Data Sources:

Digital monument footprint files of the area of North and Central Saqqara were created by an international team of Italian and Egyptian researchers, published in 2003 (E. Bresciani and A. Giammarusti, The North Saqqara Archaeological Site Handbook for the Environmental Risk Analysis. Pisa: Plus) and updated (2010) by Dr. Emanuele Brienza (GIS specialist, University of Enna, Sicily). These were shared with the project as 2D GIS shapefiles (SHP) and included attribute information on dating of monuments (in this project labeled Phase, Dynasty, Reign), monument descriptors (Type and Owner), as well as the early history of excavation (Discoverer and Years). Other metadata not relevant to this project was removed. This 2D data is the foundation for the 3D model. 

Additional digital monument footprints within Saqqara and throughout the Memphite area were created by the 3D Saqqara project by geo-referencing archaeological plans on ESRI satellite imagery. The project made every attempt to provide comparable metadata to that of the original Italian data. 

The model for the pyramid and enclosure of Djoser was provided by Dr. Mark Lehner, Director of Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA). 

All other 3D models were created by the 3D Saqqara project based on published archaeological information. See individual model metadata for specific sources. Models are simplified architectural massing models, so much architectural detail and most interior spaces have been omitted. 

GPR Survey of Saqqara data was provided by the Glasgow Museum’s Saqqara Geophysical Survey Project, Director Ian Mathieson (now deceased) and Geophysicist Jon Dittmer, during survey at the site from 1994–2009.

Data collected by the 3D Saqqara Survey Project in 2018 was obtained with the permission of the Department of Foreign Missions under the direction of the Secretary General and the Permanent Committee of the Supreme Council of Antiquities of the Arab Republic of Egypt. Tremendous thanks go to:

• H. E. Dr. Khaled el-Enany, Minister of Antiquities
• Dr. Mustafa Waziri, Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities
• Dr. Mohamed Ismail, Former Director of Department of Foreign Missions Affairs
• Dr. Hany Abdallah el-Tayeb, Director of Saqqara
• Dr. Sabry Farag, General Director of Saqqara
• Mr. Mohamed Hindawy, Chief Inspector South Saqqara
• Mr. Mohamed Saleh Eldin Hasab Allah Eltayb, team inspector
• Reis Mohamed Abdel Tawb 

Digital terrains for areas of specific interest created for the project were based on the 1m topographic lines from the 1:5000 Survey of Egypt series maps, Consortium SFS/IGN France, “Le Caire.” Ministry of Housing and Reconstruction (MHR), the Arab Republic of Egypt, 1978. The data originates from aerial photos conducted in 1977 at a resolution of 1:15,000. Maps utilized include H21, H22, H24, I22, I23, and J22. These were hand-digitized by the 3D Saqqara project. The 1m topographic line files of the area of Giza and 5m topographic line files of the area of South Saqqara were provided by Dr. Mark Lehner, director of AERA. These were based on original MHR maps F17 and F18 (Giza area) and H23 (South Saqqara area). The Giza data was adjusted by AERA to reflect modern-day survey data.

Between major areas of archaeological interest, digital terrains were produced by the project with lower-resolution (10m) topographic line information based on the 1:50,000 maps “Egypt G8300,” in P773: Army Map Service, Corps of Engineers, US Army, 1961. Maps utilized include 5584 IV (Abusir), 5585 III (Cairo West), 5585 II (Cairo East), 5584 I (Helwan).

Additional 5m topographic lines files of the region of Memphis based on the MHR maps (see above) were provided by AERA. Portions of this data were combined with the G8300 maps series (see above) to create low-resolution terrains between major areas of archaeological interest. 

Key topographic maps of the Memphite area were shared with the project by Ana Tavares.

Coverage: The project focuses on the site of Saqqara (29.874098° (Lat)/ 31.217318° (Long)) in the ancient and modern state of Egypt, southwest of the modern city of Cairo, but elements of the project include monuments and/or terrain data from the entire Memphite region, encompassing the archaeological sites of Dahshur, Saqqara, Abusir, Abu Ghurab, Zawiyet el-Aryan, Giza, Abu Rawash, Helwan, Memphis, and Heliopolis. This zone spans approximately the following area: SW: 29.784319° (Lat)/ 31.068335° (Long); SE: 29.782410° (Lat)/ 31.353292°(Long); NW: 30.104639°(Lat); 31.065751°(Long); NE: 30.103025° (Lat)/ 31.348812° (Long).

Temporal: The 3D model covers materials from the Early Dynastic Period through the Late Period of ancient Egypt (Dynasties 1–30). The chronological system is based on the chronology of the UCLA Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/chronology/

Rights: Project copyright is retained by the content creator and the UC Regents; Stanford University Press holds rights to the published digital monograph associated with the model and the online web application.

The superstructure of the Dynasty 1 mastaba tomb #3505 was textured using images from Walter Emery, Great Tombs of the First Dynasty: Excavations at Saqqara. Vol. 3. London: Egypt Exploration Society, 1958. Color plates 6, 7, 8. Images courtesy of the Egypt Exploration Society.

Additional satellite imagery courtesy of the DigitalGlobe Foundation.

Bibliography

Adams, Matthew D. “The Stela of Nakht, Son of Nemty: Contextualizing Object and Individual in the Funerary Landscape at Abydos.” Pages 1–26 in Millions of Jubilees: Studies in Honor of David P. Silverman. Edited by Zahi Hawass and Jennifer Houser Wegner. Supplément aux Annales du Service des antiquités de l’Égypte 39. Cairo: Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2010.

Akiyama, Shinichi, and Izumi Takamiya. “Hieratic Dockets from the Monument of Khaemwaset at North Saqqara: A Preliminary Report.” Orient 33 (1998): 46–65.

Alcock, Susan. Archaeologies of the Greek Past: Landscape, Monuments, and Memories. W. B. Stanford Memorial Lectures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Alexanian, Nicole, Felix Arnold, Drik Blaschta, Josuah Punke, and Stephan Siedelmeyer. “The Necropolis of Dahshur Eighth Excavation Report Autumn 2011 and Spring 2012.” German Archaological Institute and Free University of Berlin, June 2015. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4998.1600.

Alexanian, Nicole, Robert Schiestl, and Stephan Seidlmayer. “The Necropolis of Dahshur Third Excavation Report Spring 2006.” Free University of Berlin, 2006. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237562553.

Ali, M., and S. Magdi. “The Influence of Spolia on Islamic Architecture.” International Journal of Heritage Architecture 1, no. 3 (2017): 334–43. https://doi.org/10.2495/HA-V1-N3-334-343/007.

Allen, James. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Edited by Peter Der Manuelian. Writings from the Ancient World 23. Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005.

Allen, James. “Reading a Pyramid.” Pages 5–28 in Études Pharaoniques, vol. 1 of Hommages à Jean Leclant. Edited by Nicolas Grimal, G. Clerc, and Catherine Berger. Bibliothèque d’étude 106. Cairo: Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 1994.

Andrews, Carol. “Amulets.” Pages 75-82 in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Angenot, Valérie. “A ‘Horizon-of-Aten’ in Memphis?” Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 35 (2008): 1–20.

Aref, Nevine el-. “New Saqqara Necropolis Discovery to Reveal Secrets of Mummification: Egypt Ministry of Antiquities.” AhramOnline. July 14, 2018. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsPrint/306907.aspx.

Aref, Nevine el-. “Old Kingdom Pyramid Peak Discovered in Saqqara.” Ahram Online. October 12, 2017. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/9/40/278680/Heritage/Ancient-Egypt/Old-Kingdom-pyramid-peak-discovered-in-Saqqara.aspx.

Arguing with Digital History working group. “Digital History and Argument.” White Paper. George Mason University, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, November 13, 2017. https://rrchnm.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/digital-history-and-argument.RRCHNM.pdf.

Army Map Service, Corps of Engineers, US Army. “Egypt G8300.” 1:50,000. P773. Compiled 1960.

Arnold, Dieter. “Changing the Shape of the Pyramid of Senusret III.” Pages 108–15 in Abusir and Saqqara in the Year 2005: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Prague (June 27–July 5, 2005). Edited by Miroslav Bárta, Filip Coppens, and Jaromír Krejčí. Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague, 2006.

Arnold, Dieter. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egyptian Architecture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003.

Arnold, Dieter. “The Late Period Tombs of Hor-khebit, Wennfer and Wereshnefer at Saqqara.” Pages 31–54 in vol. 1 of Études sur l’Ancien Empire et la nécropole de Saqqâra dédiées à Jean-Philippe Lauer. Edited by Catherine Berger and Bernard Mathieu. 2 vols. Orientalia Monspeliensia 9. Montpellier: Université Paul Valéry, 1997.

Arnold, Dieter. The Pyramid Complex of Senwosret III at Dahshur: Architectural Studies. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002.

Arnold, Dieter. “The Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri.” Pages 134–46 in Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. Edited by Catharine Roehrig. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005.

Arnold, Dieter. Temples of the Last Pharaohs. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Arnold, Dorothea. “The Destruction of the Statues of Hatshepsut from Deir el-Bahri.” Pages 270–76 in Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh. Edited by Catharine Roehrig. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005.

Ashmore, Wendy. “Visions of the Cosmos: Ceremonial Landscapes and Civic Plans.” Pages 167–75 in Handbook of Landscape Archaeology. Edited by Bruno David and Julian Thomas. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2008.

Ashmore, Wendy, and Arthur Knapp. Archaeologies of Landscape: Contemporary Perspectives. Social Archaeology. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999.

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